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Conjugation And Color

Why are tomatoes red? Why are carrots orange? Why are egg yolks yellow? 听 And… why is听Vulcan听blood green?

OK, I’m not going to听touch that last one, but as for the first three: great question.

Table of Contents

1. These Highly Colored Molecules Have Highly Conjugated Pi Bonds
2. Removing Pi Bonds Changes The Color (Or Removes It Entirely)
3. How Bleach Works:听 By Destroying Pi听 Bonds
4. So How Exactly Is Conjugation Related To Color?

There are actually , but today听we’ll begin to explore the听reason for the characteristic colors of tomatoes, egg yolks, carrots, and many other pigments from nature, such as the green color of leaves and the red color of blood (heme). And yes, there is a spectroscopy angle here – but that’s going to wait until the next post.

Before getting into the听“why”, I always like to look at the “what”. Specifically, here are some examples of highly coloured molecules from everyday life.听Do you notice something that听all of these molecules have in common?

Yes, they have lots of double bonds. 听But having lots of double bonds is not sufficient for a molecule to be strongly colored.

For instance, natural rubber latex can have hundreds or thousands of pi bonds, and yet it is milky white [Note 1]:

1. These Highly Colored Molecules Have Many Conjugated听Pi听Bonds

There’s something听special about the way the pi bonds are arranged in lycopene, lutein, and b-carotene, as opposed to natural rubber latex: the pi bonds are听conjugated.听

What does that mean? [See: Are these alkenes conjugated?].

Quickie review on “conjugated” versus “non-conjugated” alkenes:

• In 1,3-hexadiene (above) note that there are two adjacent double bonds. That means that there are four consecutive sp² hybridized carbons whose p-orbitals can line up to form an extended “pi system”. [We’ll explain why this is important in the next post]
• In 1,4 hexadiene, note that there is an sp³ hybridized CH₂ (“methylene”) carbon separating the two double bonds. The CH₂ does not have an available p orbital to听overlap听with either of the adjacent pi bonds, and thus these two pi bonds are said to be “isolated” (or non-conjugated if you prefer).

Let’s听revisit听lycopene, lutein, and 尾-carotene. They each have long systems of conjugated pi bonds.

• Lycopene and 尾-carotene each have 11 conjugated pi bonds (lycopene also has 2 isolated pi bonds)
• Lutein has 10 conjugated pi bonds (with an isolated pi bond).

This is also true of chlorophyll and heme, which are more complex examples but the same principles apply.

2. Removing Double Bonds Affects The Color

Let’s start with a hypothesis: color is due to the presence of an extended series of conjugated double bonds.

How could we test this idea?

One way would be to perform an experiment that removed the 蟺听bonds听while leaving the rest of the molecule intact.

We’ve seen multiple examples of these reactions in our section on alkenes. A great candidate is听catalytic hydrogenation, which breaks C-C 蟺听bonds and forms adjacent C-H bonds by using hydrogen gas (H₂) in the presence of a metal catalyst (such as palladium on carbon, Pd/C).

Indeed, when one subjects red lycopene (C₄₀H₅₆) to exhaustive catalytic hydrogenation, one obtains perhhydrolycopene (aka “lycopane”) with formula C₄₀H₈₂ –听a听colourless oil.听

Bottom line: removing the conjugated 蟺听system removes the source of color!

3. Bleach Works By Destroying Pi Bonds

Does this seem too abstract? Do we need a听real life application?

Look no further:

Damn that lycopene! How can we get those nasty stains out of our clothes using our new-found chemistry knowledge?

Here’s an idea I’m giving away for free:

Since you now know that lycopene is responsible for the red color of ketchup, and catalytic hydrogenation removes the color, you could make a home device for catalytic hydrogenation of shirts at high pressure and get rid of the stain. Since every household could use one, and there are about 100 million households in the USA, you could sell each unit 听for several hundred dollars apiece, and before you know it, you’ll be buying a top hat and a monocle.

#billiondollarideas

Or… you could just use this.

That’s right:听Bleach removes the color of grass, ketchup, blood, carrots, and a lot of other common food and vegetable stains听by听reacting with the 蟺听bonds responsible for the color of these molecules.听

Bleach (sodium hypochlorite, NaOCl) reacts with alkenes in a similar way to a reagent we’ve seen before, Cl₂ in H₂O. When you examine the structure of NaOCl, notice that Cl is attached to the more electronegative atom O. That means that chlorine bears a partial positive charge – it’s听electrophilic.听Thus, NaOCl will react with nucleophiles like alkenes in a similar way to Cl₂ or Br₂, forming a bridging intermediate through the听three membered ring pathway.听听The 3-membered ring bridge is then attacked at the most substituted carbon by the nucleophilic solvent (water in this case).

Let’s apply this specifically to lycopene (and by extension other molecules).

Bleach works by knocking out the pi bonds responsible for the red color of lycopene:

I should point out that it isn’t necessary for bleach to hit听every pi bond. Knocking out just a few in that sequence of 11 conjugated pi bonds is enough to remove the red color.

So there you go, folks. Now you know that bleach doesn’t actually听clean听anything. It just modifies the molecules so that they aren’t coloured anymore. : – )

4. Conjugation And Color: How Exactly Are They Related?

So far, we’ve explained nothing truly fundamental about the source of color. All we’ve done is show a bunch of pretty pictures, a bad GIF, and explained the workings of a household chemical. So let’s get down to business and start answering the “Why”.

Let’s start with a few obvious things:

• Substances that do not absorb visible light, such as water, 听will appear colourless;听or, if finely dispersed, white due to scattering听of light (e.g. clouds).
• Substances that absorb at all frequencies of visible light will appear black.

• Next, and pardon me if this is obvious to you, 听the pigment molecules we’ve been talking about don’t emit light. 听[Luciferin from fireflies does, under certain conditions, but that’s and we’re not talking about that here].
• What we perceive as color is the light that is听reflected from these pigment molecules.

We see ripe tomatoes as red because white light is reflected back to our eyes as red light.听So some portion of the visible spectrum is being absorbed by lycopene: we see the light it doesn’t absorb.

So if we see something as听red, how can we figure out what wavelengths of light are being absorbed?

For simple cases, it’s been known for hundreds of years that when light of a certain color is absorbed, the听complimentary color is observed. A听common tool for determining this is a color wheel, which places complimentary colors on opposite sides.听听Here’s one made by the German poet (and amateur scientist) Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.

• From the color wheel we determine that the complimentary colour of red is green. 听So a good first guess is that lycopene in tomatoes is absorbing somewhere in the green part of the visible spectrum.
• Similarly, pigments that appear yellow听tend to absorb in the听indigo听area of the visible spectrum.
• Pigments that appear听orange tend to absorb in the听blue听area of the visible spectrum…. you get the idea.

So what do all those conjugated pi bonds have to do with lycopene absorbing green light?

Excellent听question. Now we’re getting into some deep stuff. This is a great topic! 听But it will have to wait until the next post for a full treatment.

Next post: UV-Visible Spectroscopy

Notes

Note 1.听Commenter John points out:

The latex rubber example is a little bit of apples and oranges. The white color is common for any latex/emulsion and it arise from the physical structure of the dispersion 鈥� the emulsion particles scatter all light. A better comparison would be a dried latex, but they are typically light yellow due to impurities.